Population geographies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Population geographies - Essay Example This movement is often termed as migration. Population movement is categorized under the micro and macro levels. Macro migration refers to the movement of people from one country to another while micro refers to people moving from one region or area to another. A population movement is as a result of the pull (voluntary) and pushes (non-voluntary) factors. While major cities are a focal point of public attention, urbanization will be concentrated in the smaller cities, which have inadequate resources to cater for the needs of the new urban population. In most countries, the total number of urban dwellers continues to swell at a higher rate than the cities’ or towns’ capacities to provide water, jobs, sanitation, houses, and other essential services. The UN states that the unemployment rate of immigrants in urban areas is higher than in rural areas. It is only about 40% of the immigrants who have access to good jobs. Consequently, many people are forced to fend for themselves by entering the informal sector, or turning to crime and prostitution. Due to high unemployment levels, some of the urban dwellers are forced to build their houses since they cannot afford to pay rent. These shanties give rise to slums within the urban environment. Slums lack sewerage, waste disposal and water facilities. Accessibility of clean water in the urban areas is a necessity everywhere. Unlike in developed countries where the urban population has access to clean water, third world countries lack this basic need or commodity. In Africa, 26 % of the urban population has access to clean water. 29% of the Asian urban population has access to clean water whereas, in South America, only a paltry 12% have access to clean water. The movement of people from rural to urban areas (mostly in developing countries) is among the most common visible trends today. According to the United Nations data, 60% of the world’s population will be

Managerial Economics - Oligopoly Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Managerial Economics - Oligopoly - Essay Example This act of Holland Sweetener amounted to an attempt to dilute the monopoly and convert the US market into an oligopoly comprised of two major suppliers of Aspartame. In order to do this the major issue presented in the case study is that of pricing. Strategic pricing in order to win the major buyers so as to capture market share and maximize profits. Given the usual assumptions of an identical product, identical costs and the Bertrand variety of oligopoly in which the both Monsanto and Holland Sweetener simultaneously decide to quote the price either as high or low to Coke and Pepsi. Due to interdependence of the two sellers it becomes very important for each firm to decide strategically whether to quote a low or a high price. In Bertrand oligopoly strategy reduces to simultaneously setting prices in the hope that the competition does not change its set price. Such conflicting or non cooperating pricing strategies are increasingly being dealt with the constructs in Game Theory which not only introduced the idea that conflict could be mathematically analyzed but also provided the terminology with which to do it. Rasmussen (2001) traces the beginning of the theoretical development in field by quoting the relevant literature and by stating that the evolution of the arguments around the "Prisoner's Dilemma" construct (as in Tucker) and thereafter Nash's papers on the definition and existence of equilibrium further developed the field of the modern non-cooperative game theory. However important and simultaneous developments were taking place in cooperative game theory through the important contributions of Nash and Shapley on bargaining games and Gillies and Shapley on the core theory utilized in study of cartels. These developments are traced in several books on economics and Game Theory. (Thus if each firm acts independently, the result is a Nash equilibrium. Part of the definition of Nash equilibrium is that each player takes what the other players are doing as given when deciding what he should do; he holds their behavior constant and adjusts his to maximize his gains. But if one firm increases its output, the other firms must adjust whether they choose to or not. If they continue to charge the same price, they will find that they are selling less; if they continue to produce the same amount, the price they can sell it for will fall. The pay-off matrix from the case study can be given as in Table 1 below: Table 1: Pay-off Matrix of Monsanto and Holland Sweetener In this table Monsanto is represented as Player 1 and Holland Sweetener as the player 2.As per the assumptions the payoff have been categorized in various cells of the matrix. Player 1- Monsanto (Figures in $ Millions) Player 2- Holland SweetenerAn examination of the Table 1 reveals that following an independent strategy of pricing high Monsanto is likely to gain $300 million if Holland also priced high.However, its payoffs would plummet to $0 millions if

Letter to an Extra-Terrestrial Alien Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Letter to an Extra-Terrestrial Alien - Essay Example So, he asked help from the king and queen of Spain who eventually agreed to support him. During his search, he accidentally found land which he thought was Asia but was really the Caribbean islands as they are called now. Columbus eventually made three more trips to the â€Å"New World† and established a settlement on one of the islands. He was made Governor but his abusive rule caused the loss of his reputation, title and wealth. Hernando Cortes or Cortes also came from Spain but his expedition brought him to Mexico. Here, Cortes built a settlement and made friends with the inhabitants, people called the Aztecs. The natives thought that Cortes was part of a prophecy and so they accepted him warmly. Later on, the two groups disagreed with each other. While Cortes was away to fight another Spanish group who was trying to capture him, the Aztec revolted in the capital, Tenochtitlan and eventually the Spanish left the city. In 1521, Cortes and his men returned to Tenochtitlan, conquered the Aztecs and established a new settlement which is now known as Mexico. As you may have noticed when Columbus and Cortez came to the â€Å"New World† there were already people living on the islands. It is believed that groups of people called the Paleo-Indians were already inhabitants of the â€Å"New World† before the Europeans came. The Paleo-Indians were hunters. There are two theories of how they came to America. One is that they supposedly followed mammoths, their source of food, using a land bridge when the sea level was very low. Another theory is that they came using very primitive boats. Either way, this theory is the most commonly used explanation now for the discovery of America. So, people from Europe started to come and live here in America with the natives. Among these was a group supported by the Virginia Company of London. The group arrived at Cape Henry and explored the area of Chesapeake Bay. Part of the people who

College students need tax deductions - response to questionnaire Essay

College students need tax deductions - response to questionnaire - Essay Example Further, 7 (about 44%) of them stated that they do not work, i.e. they do not hold any sort of job, whereas 2 (about 12%) of them worked around 10 to 15 hours per week; 3 of them (about 19%) claimed that they worked 15 to 20 hours per week and the rest of them (about 25%) stated that they worked more than 20 hours per week. The findings show that a majority of the students does little to no work in the way of employment. When asked how many hours would suffice for them to afford college, about 19% said that they did not need work to afford college, and a similar percentage said that they had never thought about this question. Another 19% said that 20 hours per week would suffice, whereas 6% said that 15 hours and about 37% said that more than 20 hours per week would be sufficient. Around 44% of them stated that they had never thought about the tax rates for single college students, and an identical percentage stated that it is too high, only 2 (12%) thought that the current tax rate is reasonable. However, 100% of them would support a decrease in the current tax rate. Out of these, around 19%, about 12% and 50% wanted the tax rate to be reduced to 20 percent, 18 percent and 15 percent respectively, with about 6 percent stating that they did not want it changed. About 62% said that they found it hard to cope with their studies due to their work responsibilities whereas the other 48 or so percent did not have any such problems. When asked what problems they have had to face due to juggling work and studies together, the responses were quite varied: some of them simply stated that they do not work, whereas those who worked stated that their grades suffered, they were sleep deprived, had little to no social life, had professors who gave them extra work on weekends when they had to work most of the weekend, had a lack of concentration at both work and college as well as an unbalanced diet. In short there are

English Legal System Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 2

English Legal System - Essay Example back which I feel endorses my question answering skills which involves a clear breakdown of the question into all possible components, researching each component separately, and developing a comprehensive answer to the question. From the feedback, it is clear that I have good ability to dissect a question in such a manner that all components of the questions are set out. Secondly, the feedback endorses my research skills in regards to the components of the questions dissected above and my ability to answer each component satisfactorily. Moreover, it endorses my brevity, which inculcates ability to communicate clearly using minimum words possible. Besides that, I learn that my question answering technique and structure meets the legal writing skills expected of me, whereby I bring out the issues clearly, discuss the rules applicable, analyse the application of the rules on the issues raised and ability to make a valid conclusion which is supported by the case laws and authorities generally. Finally, I learn that I have mastered the art of referencing using the OSCOLA format. Referencing forms a key part of academic writing. I believe that I can replicate my academic writing skills into legal writing and drafting. I am conscious that I still need to keep learning to better my skills. However, key developmental issues emerge from the feedback. I need to learn to read through judgements in order to understand why judges ruled the way they did. I understand that rules that emerge from case laws are supported by a particular line of reasoning by the respective judge. Further, I understand that it is important to understand the reasoning of judges as it shows why judges ruled the way they did. To add, it is clear to me that I have to widen the scope of my research and cease relying on only one book. I understand this to mean that I have to answer the question with appreciation of the fact that several viewpoints on a certain issues may exist. Authors may approach an

General Description of the Community Essay Example for Free

General Description of the Community Essay Target area being assessed by the author is hospice service in Sioux Falls and surrounding areas provided by Avera Mckennan. Hospice care is end-of-life care provided by health professionals and volunteers Hospice care provides medical services, emotional support, and spiritual resources for people who are in the last stages of terminal illness. Although most hospice patients are cancer patients, hospice accepts anyone regardless of age and type of disease. The goal of hospice treatment is to keep patient comfortable and improve quality of life. Hospice care tries to manage symptoms so that patients last days may be spent with dignity, surrounded by his/her loved ones. Hospice care is family-centered: the patient and family are both included in the care plan and emotional, spiritual and practical support is provided depending on the patients wishes and families needs. Hospice is not so much a place, as it is a philosophy of care with a family-centered approach that considers the patient and family to be the unit of care (Lattanzi-Licht et al. , 1998). Avera Mckennan Hospice Services are the main focus of author. Avera McKennans Home Hospice and Palliative Care program office is located in the Dougherty Hospice House. Through this program, they provide hospice services in a variety environments: hospice care in the home setting, hospice care in an assisted living facility, hospice care in a skilled nursing facility and also, in Dougherty Hospice House. The Dougherty Hospice House is a unique sixteen bed hospice facility located on the Prince of Peace campus. This place provides a home like setting with specious rooms for patient and sleeping accommodations for family members. It also has a meditation room, wireless internet, beautiful meditative garden, large dining and family room for families to gather, and library. Dougherty Hospice House and its surrounding property are tobacco free environments. About 80% of all hospice care is provided in private homes, nursing homes, independent and assisted living facilities (Caffrey, C. et al. , 2011). If hospice care provided in patients home, a family member will look after their loved one much of the time. Someone form hospice team will usually visit patient once or twice a week assessing a patient and addressing current health issues. Avera McKennan Hospice team consist of 25 people including nurses, social workers, spiritual advisors/chaplains, nursing assistants, trained volunteers, pharmacist and medical director. In case of emergency home hospice patient can call the 24-hour hospice number for advice. A nurse usually can come to patients house at any time of the day or night or give an advise over the phone. Based on the patients circumstances and stage of care, a hospice interdisciplinary team (IDT) may provide variety of services. Registered nurses assist patient with management of discomfort, pain and side effects of previous treatment ( nausea from chemotherapy). Also nurses help educate both patient and family about what is happening. The nurse is a link connecting patient, family and physician. Home health aids provide extra support for personal care such as bathing, shaving, dressing and eating. Trained hospice volunteers offer assistance with everyday tasks such as shopping, babysitting, and carpooling. They are being available to listen to the patients and families and offer compassionate support. Primary doctor approves plan of care for hospice patient and works with hospice team. A hospice medical director who has expertise in symptom management and end-of-life care is available to the attending physician, patient and family, and hospice team as a great resource and consultant. Chaplains, priests, or other spiritual counselors help patient and family explore the meaning of the death, and perform religious ceremony specific to the patient. Respite care can be provided by inpatient hospice to give family a break from stress of care giving in up to 5-day periods. This service recognizes the need for caregivers to have time away from caretaking roles (Ingleton, Payne, Nolan, Carey, 2003;Lattanzi-Licht e. l. , 1998). Terms such as caregiver burden (Chwalisz Kisler, 1995), caretaker role fatigue, spousal burnout, and role engulfment refer to an imbalance between the physical and mental resources needed to give care and those available within the family unit (Reese Sontag, 2001). Regularly scheduled family conferences most often led by the hospice nurse or social worker allow patient and family members share feelings, talk about what to expect, what is needed, and learn about process of dying. The interdisciplinary team coordinates Avera McKennan Hospice services and supervises al care 7 days a week, 24 hours a day. The team is making sure that current information is shared among all the services involved in patients care. Official Community Government (form of government). For-profit and nonprofit hospices have the same regulations. They must comply with State low and Code of Federal Regulations governing hospice care. For-profit hospices grow more than six times faster than nonprofit hospices. Profit sometimes risks compromising the quality of care patients receive. Nonprofit hospices provide hospice services to anyone including persons who do not have health insurance coverage and cannot afford to pay for care. In this case, nonprofit hospice can provide services to person free of charge as part of its charitable mission because nonprofit status of the hospice requires it to offer charitable services and they are dedicated to the mission of caring those in need. Main purpose of for-profit hospices is to make money and pay dividends to their stockholders. They have no obligation to provide services to anyone who does not have Medicare, Medicaid or private insurance coverage. However, both type of hospices are trying to make money, but when they compete for patients, they must provide better care. Averas Home hospice services are covered 100% under Medicare and some Medicaid plans, but inpatient care at the Dougherty Hospice House involve some financial expense. Social workers offer patients and their families help with payment options and never turn away a patient for inability to pay for the service. Medicare is the primary payer for hospice services covering 77% of all hospice expenses. The rest is paid for by Medicaid (4%), private insurance (12%) or other sources (7%). Compare to hospital and skilled nursing facilities, hospice is considered a cost-effective service. Hospice charges per day are much lower than hospitals and skilled nursing facilities. Hospice care is covered in full by most insurance. Medicare and Medicaid provide a special Hospice Benefit. This benefit provides 100% coverage for visit by staff, medications related to the hospice illness, durable medical equipment in the home, and supplies for skin care, incontinence management, dressings, etc. Hospice care covered under Medicare includes both inpatient care when needed, and home care services. The focus of hospice is on care, emphasizing help the person to make the most of each day by providing comfort and pain relief. Most private insurance companies include hospice care as a benefit. Patient and family can hire hospice providers and pay for their services out of pocket. If patient has a limited financial resources, non-profit hospices provide services without charge as part of charitable mission. Any patient who enters hospice must be evaluated at the time of admission to the hospice program. Hospice dietitians assist the patient in reaching the best nutritional goals, depending on the current state of the patient’s condition. Common problems for hospice patients are nausea and vomiting. These can be controlled with anti-emetics in some cases, while for some patient s change of diet is sufficient. Educating patient and family about the changes occurring in the patient’s body is imperative. During the course of illness, patient experience changes to some extend in their food intake. It is common for the hospital patient to reduce oral intake of food and fluids as the disease progresses. In general, there is metabolism alterations occur in patient’s body with a terminal illness. Furthermore, there comes a time when the body begins to break cells down instead of building them up. At this point, the body is no longer takes nutrients in. Sometimes patients are forced to take food by family members; in this case the body may refuse through vomiting or diarrhea. A hospice dietitian will explain when this point is reached. However, addressing to stop oral intake before this point is reached is not appropriate. Ongoing assessment of hospice patient nutritional needs will help to determine if there is any appetite change or ability to take the food in and keep it. Based on a study of the non-hospice end-of-life experience of 3,357 seriously ill patients who died reported 40% were in severe pain prior to their death, and 25% experienced moderate to great anxiety of depression before they died (Lynn, 1997). However, hospice is a compassionate way to deliver health care and supportive services. Despite the low South Dakota’s death rate compare the national death rate, the two leading causes of death are heart disease and cancer, accounted for half of South Dakota deaths. Healthy lifestyle changes are critical in reducing deaths due to cancer and heart disease. These modifications can be accomplished by reducing tobacco use, increasing physical activity, and developing healthy eating habits. Minorities in South Dakota include African American, Asian, and Hispanic populations. In general, language barriers, transportation, finances, and lack of insurance were found to be the issues encountered by minorities in seeking adequate health care. Furthermore, end of life care is not reach minority population and remains as a national issue. The majority of hospice patient care is provided in the place patient calls â€Å"home†. In addition to private residences, this includes nursing homes and assisted living facilities. As the health care becomes better, the population lives longer. Nursing home patients benefit from hospice services as much as people living in their homes. According to studies, nursing home residents enrolled in hospice were less likely to be hospitalized in the final 30 days of their life (24% vs. 44%) (Miller, 2001). They were more likely to be assessed for pain, were twice as likely to receive pain management within clinical guidelines (Miller, 2004). Large percentage of elderly people receives home hospice service. Many homes need some modifications for the hospice services to be provided. For example, a bedroom may need to be relocated to a main level of the house for those who have difficulties claiming stairs. There is widening of the hallways may be required to accommodate a wheelchair access. Because of the growing number of people who wish to stay and receive care at home, general contractors are available to assess remodeling needs. A number of programs and sources provide reduced rates, loans, or free services with home modifications.

Is Human Population Growth A Threat Environmental Sciences Essay

Is Human Population Growth A Threat Environmental Sciences Essay Even though population is often considered a sensitive topic, it is becoming increasingly difficult to ignore the concept that population growth threatens the environment. The rapid increase in population growth over the past few centuries has led to an increasing interest in, and a growing concern for population growth as one of the key threats to the environment. A threat to the environment can be in many different forms, such as soil erosion, climate change, deforestation, wastes, and pollution. The aim of the following essay is to explore how population growth is considered to contribute to these issues and degrade the environment. In order to achieve this aim the essay will be split into two main parts. The first section will outline theories that argue population growth is a threat to the environment. This will be supported by Malthus and Meadows et al. In order to gain a succinct analysis this essay will concentrate on the natural environment, in particular exploring how defor estation is threatened by population growth. However, the second part of the essay will challenge this and purport that population growth does not endanger the environment. It will argue that an increasing population could improve environmental quality. It also will claim if resources are managed sustainable then population growth will not negatively affect the environment. This is supported by Tiffen and Mortimore and Fox. Local case studies are used as micro studies show the relationship between population and deforestation more clearly, as macro studies are affected by many other influences. Finally the conclusions reached are population growth is not the root cause of environmental damage. If resources are managed sustainably and new technologies are used, then population growth itself would not threaten the environment. A positive correlation between population growth and environmental damage Overpopulation [is] our number one environmental problem (Rodnguez-Tnias 1994:1379). Since 1650 the rate of population growth has increased. This has resulted in a rapid increase of the world population which rose from 3.3 billion in 1965 to over 6 billion by the year 2000. Thus world population almost doubled in just 35 years and the rate of growth itself was also rising. Moreover a billion people were added to the world population from 1987 to 1999, an increase equivalent to the total world population in 1804 (Panayotou 2000). This relatively recent increase in world population has led to a mounting concern for how population growth affects the natural environment and natural resources (Meadows et al 2005:28). There are many reasons as to why population growth is seen as a threat to the environment. For example, human populations use up natural resources, omit greenhouse gases contributing to climate change, destroy habitats resulting in loss of biodiversity, and increase air and water pollution levels. Hence, almost all environmental issues are either directly or indirectly related to population. Furthermore, it is often reported in the media that a growing population is an environmental threat, further increasing the concern. For example Andrew Woodcock reports in The Independent that a booming population is a threat to climate change (2006 online). There has been a simultaneous trend of a growth in population and a steep decrease in environmental quality and an increase in resource depletion (Panayotou 2000).Consequently, population growth is often considered the greatest and key threat to the environment. The debate on the correlation between population and the environment began over 150 years ago when classical political economists such as Malthus (1798) identified a relationship between population and food supply. He argued that population grew exponentially, whereas food supply would only grow arithmetically, resulting in major food shortages. He claimed that the pressure on agricultural land would result in a decline in environmental quality, forcing cultivation of poorer quality land. He criticised the idea that agricultural improvements could be made and expand with limits and claimed that the power of population growth was greater than the earths ability to support man. Malthus concluded that population growth must limited to remain within environmental restrictions, as the earths resources are finite. Malthus theory that the size of population is dependent on food supply and agricultural methods, This idea was resurrected in the 20th century, by key publications, most notably The Limits to Growth by Meadows et al (1972) and The Population Bomb by Ehrlich (1968). This new body of work by contemporary authors is referred to as neo-Malthusianism. The debate however has shifted from agricultural land to concerns about the role of population growth in the depletion of other natural and renewable resources, and the effect of population growth on climate change and on biodiversity loss. Meadows et al (1972) argued that population growth can create problems because of environmental limits. They argued that population growth cannot continue indefinitely and used past data to predict future trends in world population, resource depletion, pollution and food production. They claimed that the limits of the planet will be reached within the next century and that population could therefore not carry on growing. In their 30 year update in 2005 they argued their conclusions were even more imp ortant today. They claimed that there is now land scarcity and the limits have been approached, which is especially serious as population keeps rising and resources are being depleted. Growth in the globes population could lead to the possibility for a potential catastrophic overshoot (Meadows et al 2005). Livi-Bacci (2001) points out that in Bangladesh the limits have already been reached, hence population cannot carry on growing. This is similar to Ehrlich (1968) who argued that there should be action to reduce population growth otherwise there would be mass starvation. The growth of world population increases the demands on natural resources, making it difficult to protect these resources, thus declining environmental quality (Sitarz 1993). Hence there are reasons to worry about the effect population growth will have on the environment in the long term (Sen 1994). Consequently the consensus is that there is a population problem (Neumann 2004:817). Population growth causes problems in the local environment. There is no single guide to analysing the state of the environment; therefore the relationship between population and environment is usually evaluated in terms of individual resources or measurements of environmental quality (Panayotou 2000). Environmental quality can be measured by the stock of forests or by the absence of air and water pollution. The affect population growth has on deforestation has received considerable attention as forests play a key role in wildlife habitats, the carbon cycle, and a source of raw material. At the global scale deforestation contributes to global warming, and at a local scale leads to soil degradation (Fairhead and Leach 1995, Nyerges and Green 2000). There is evidence which supports Malthusian arguments that an increasing population has a negative effect on environmental stocks. The role of population growth is particularly clear in fragile environments such as forests (Livi-Bacci 2001). The cause of deforestation is frequently seen as a result of population pressures as population growth increases the need for arable land, resulting in a conversion of forest land to other uses (Cropper and Griffith 1994). Malthus argued population growth would result in a higher need for agricultural land and this results in a decline of forest land particularly in Africa and Latin America (Livi-Bacci 2001). 60% of the worlds deforestation is a result of the need for more agricultural land (Pimentel and Pimentel 1999). Each year, 70 million people are added to world population, mostly in developing countries and 15 million square kilometres of forests disappear(Panayotou 2000:25). This research led to many people hypothesising that more people m ust result in fewer forests, as the higher the population growth, the faster this process will take place (Ehrlich and Ehrlich 1990, Rudel 1991). This will cause a steep decrease in forest size from year to year. Forests frequently owe their origins to depopulation, therefore resulting in the conclusion that population growth causes deforestation, especially in poor and developing countries (Fairhead and Leach 1994). This affect is more observed at the local level, for example Cropper and Griffith (1994) used panel data for Asia, Africa and Latin America between 1961 and 1988 and found a positive relationship between deforestation and population growth. Additionally, Fairhead and Leach (1995) identified that there was an observed decline in forests in The Ziama Forest Reserve in Guinea as a result of growing populations, which have moved away from traditional methods. IUCN report on Ziama states that forest cover in this part of Guinea is now only 20% of what it was at origin' and t he report emphasizes that the forest is regressing rapidly (cited in Fairhead and Leach 1995:1029). Therefore the decline of forests reflects the populations who cleared it (Fairhead and Leach 1994). Furthermore Sambrook et al (2004) did a study of 450 traditional hillslope farms in the Dominican Republic, and found there was positive relationship between population pressure and deforestation. They found that for the entire 1987 farm sample, 52% of the variation in deforestation is explained by population pressures (p36). This effect can also been seen at the country level, for example in Thailand deforestation was caused by demographic pressure from migration (Livi-Bacci 2001). Consequently, population growth causes a disproportionate negative impact on the environment (Ehrlich and Holdren 1971:1212). There is a conventional wisdom that population growth is responsible for deforestation. This supports the neo-Malthusian view that population growth is the root cause of environmental degradation, and growing demands for finite resources. Therefore the solution is direct population control (Panayotou 1996). If population growth is a major threat to the environment then steps must be taken to reduce the rates of growth. Livi-Bacci (2001) argues that a decline population increase will diffuse the issue of the environment. Therefore there is an immediate need to develop strategies aimed at controlling world population growth (Sitarz 1993:44). This means that there needs to be support for family planning throughout the world especially in developing countries which have the highest rates of population growth, and less access to family planning (Barlett 1994). Therefore, slowing the increase in population, especially in the face of rising demand for natural resources, can help protect the environment. As population size reaches even higher levels the environment is at risk and the outcome is impossible to predict, therefore policies to reduce population are needed (Upadhyay and Robey 1999). However, the next section will counter this and argue population growth is not a threat and therefore there is no need for population controls. Population growth is not the key issue for threats to the environment There is scepticism about whether population growth is the key threat to the environment, as Monbiot (2008 online) writes is population really our number one environmental problem? Even though there is evidence of a correlation between population growth and a decrease in environmental quality, a nearly perfect correlation does not necessarily imply causation. Otherwise, it would be expected that countries with the highest population such as China and India would have the highest use of natural resources (Panayotou 2000). The worldwide average per capita use of forest resources is 0.75 ha, whereas in China, a country which approximately 20% of the world population uses less that average forest resources with only 0.11ha/capita (Pimentel and Pimental1999). Some problems have been raised over the Malthusian view of population growth threatening the environment. The world has coped with fast increases in population, even though Malthus predicted terrible disasters. At the time he wrote there were fewer than a billion people in world but he felt the earths limits had past. The world population has grown six times larger since 1798, but contrary to what Malthus predicted, food production grew even higher (Sen 1994). Clearly, Malthus (1798, 1803) did not foresee the technological advances of the last two centuries as a result of the industrial and agricultural revolutions. Like other classical writers he assumed that land productivity was fixed (Panayotou 2000). Boserup opposes Malthus theory arguing that agricultural methods depend on population size (Darity 1989). Boserup (1965) theorised that population determined agricultural methods, therefore the power of initiative and new innovations would overcome the power of demand. This means po pulation growth would not continue to degrade the environment as communities would switch to new and more intensive methods of the land. Thus population growth does not result in a degradation of the environment because populations will change to another system with a higher carrying capacity. Therefore, the issue is not the numbers of people, but how those numbers relate to available resources (Barlett 1994:9). Technological changes and better management of resources would ensure that a population can expand the earths capacity. It can be argued that population growth is in fact the driving force for efficiency and technological innovation ensuring growth without damaging the environment (Panayotou 1996). For example an increase in agricultural yields can offset the effect of population growth on deforestation as a 10% increase in agricultural yields from technological change would result in a 1.1% reduction in deforestation (Panayotou 2000). Therefore the effects of population gro wth can be reduced by modern technology and increased efficiency (Cropper and Griffiths 1994). Consequently, an environmental crisis can be avoided if steps are taken to conserve and manage resources and demand sustainably (Upadhyay and Robey 1999). Therefore the natural environment and resources has never been fixed but has expanded due to innovation. The limits to growth are not defined as they are connected to the effects of technological growth and cultural choices (Livi-Bacci 2001). This rejects Malthuss argument as he assumed land productivity was fixed, whereas Boserup (1965, 1976) argues that famine is not possible as technological changes would allow food production to keep up with population growth. In addition, more efficient and environmentally sound agricultural technologies must be developed and put into practice to support the continued productivity of agriculture (Pimentel and Pimentel, 1996). Meadows et al (1972) and Ehrlich were wrong to suggest population growth would lead to environmental degradation as it may result in conservation or an improvement of the natural environment. This view does not restrict the levels of population but suggests it can actively improve the environment. Tiffen and Mortimore (1994) argued against Malthusian views and pointed out that population growth does not necessarily threaten the environment as better management and investment would ensure the natural environment is protected. Agricultural labour requirements increased not because of a larger amount of cropped land but because of larger labour requirements, as Boserup suggests. They pointed out that an increasing population would increase access to sources of knowledge and using technologies. This enables outputs to rise faster than population growth. Like Tiffen and Mortimore, Murton (1999) also argued against Malthusian arguments. He used example in the Machakos district in Kenya whi ch showed that environmental conservation occurred during periods of population increase. Therefore, population growth is an important means of improving environmental quality. Therefore, if resources are management sustainably then population growth can protect the environment. He found population growth has a positive influence on forests as farmers became more dependent on non-agricultural sources of income. Therefore, Malthus is wrong to suggest there would be a catastrophe as population increase can have a positive influence on forests. This is supported by Fox (1993) who did research on forest resources in a Nepali village Bhogteni in 1980 and 1990 and found despite an annual population growth rate of 2.5%, forests were found to be in much better condition in 1990 than they were in 1980 (p89). Thus population growth had a positive influence on forest resources. He found that Nepali farmers began to develop their own methods for conserving the forests through community manageme nt. This result in an increase of forest resources as in 1980 private woodlots had 179 trees/ha compared to 489 trees/ha in 1990. Therefore population growth does not necessarily lead to downward spiral of land degradation. Fairhead and Leach (1994) also identified a counter-narrative for their evidence, as local residents argued they had created the patches of forest around their villages, not destroyed it. Oral history suggests that the villages encouraged and managed the growth of forest islands around their villages. Therefore, it is not necessarily the case that the area was originally forest prior to increase of the population. It is conceivable that management of the local resources was partially responsible for the spread of forest areas, from earlier savanna-like conditions. They point out that more villages actually resulted in more forest islands. The Ziama region was originally bare rock not forest land. Therefore there is a broader narrative (Fairhead and Leach 1995). T herefore the wrong interpretations were made based on stereotypes (Fairhead and Leach 1994). Conversely, oral history is not fact, or based on empirical evidence and cant apply these local/village findings everywhere. Hence the validity of these arguments is questionable. While this rejects Malthusian arguments, as population growth did not lead to further environmental degradation, it does not confirm Boserups hypothesis that population growth would lead to new innovations. Furthermore, population growth creates the incentive to protect the environment, as costs of existing resources increase and benefits from substitutes are realised (Panayotou 2000). Therefore the rapid population growth in Bhogteni may have resulted in an increased willingness of the villages to seek better management for forest lands. Thus forests would not have been perceived as threatened if there was not a high population growth rate. Fox (1993) also argues that other variables contributed to the management of the forest in Bhogteni, such as an introduction of a new road and changes in forest tenure. Nevertheless, while population growth can trigger land use changes it is not the root cause of environmental damage. The root cause results from market failures, especially in developing countries where property rights are neither defined nor enforced. Thus the private cost of deforestation is zero. Therefore, because they have no right of ownership to the land they have no incentive to protect it and make efficient land-use decisions (Panayotou 2000). We should recognize, however, that the immediate threat to these lands is not population growth but bad forest management policies. Before population can be cited as the cause of forest degradation, forest policies must be implemented that provide incentives for local people to manage forest resources (Fox 1993). It is often the conclusion that population drives deforestation, however, the context must be kept in mind, such as open access forest resources, low levels of education, insecurely held agricultural land. These all combined prevent response to population growth. Therefore a more complete analysis should look at all these factors. Furthermore, other issues also affect the rate of deforestation. Holdren (1991) used a mathematical formula I = P x A x T to show how population, affluence and technology have an impact on the environment. He claimed that environmental policies should focus on consumption rathe r than population growth. Population growth is a factor among other issues. While the Brundtland Report (1987) states that population growth is not the central problem. Furthermore, if a country has a higher income then the rate of deforestation is likely to be slower. As income rises, people use other energy sources and modern agricultural techniques which reduces the demand for agricultural land. Therefore reducing the rates is population growth is not necessarily the best method for decreasing the rate of deforestation (Cropper and Griffiths 1994). Therefore all of these factors are responsible for a deterioration of the environment and all need to be tackled. Therefore population is only one factor among many, and the interactions of these factors are crucial for driving the deforestation process. Policies are needed to tackle poverty in developing countries and high consumption levels in developed countries first (Saxena and Nautiyal 1997). However, it depends what level is being studies as micro studies may find significant negative effects on resources from population pressures on the local environment, while macro studies identify no resource constraints at the national or global level. This distinction between macro or aggregate, analysis and micro, or more disaggregated analysis is one that you could develop further. One of the points that this leads to is questions of control of resources and the uses to which they are put. Macro-level and micro-level analysis may lead to different insights and conclusions in this regard. Micro studies-even though better analyse the effect of population growth also mask the wider socio-economic factors which may result in environmental degradation (Murton 1997). Therefore there are complications for tracing the effect of world population on the global environment (Panayotou 2000) The interlocking crises in population, resources, and environment (Ehrlich and Holdren 1971). The Malthusian theory of population growth and resource degradation is clearly a myth that needs to be slain.p97 (Fox1993). Conclusion From examining the evidence above it is clear that there is little agreement on the relationship between population and environment, there is a tremendous variation in findings and their interpretation. The selective use of evidence gives rise to outcomes that range from the most pessimistic to the most optimistic. The objective of this essay was to review analytically and critically the arguments on the population-environment interface. This essay has outlined Malthusian arguments of population growth causing environmental degradation. This essay has also explored counter-evidence to this, arguing that innovation and a better management of resources can offset the effects of population growth. This essay has also argued that other factors affect are the cause of deterioration in environmental quality. A more complete analysis should incorporate these factors and their interaction with population growth. It is generally agreed that population growth is an indirect threat to the environment. Therefore direct threats need to be addressed. Issues such as poverty need to be solved to improve environmental quality, not reducing population numbers. However, whether evidence is used from macro or micro scales can skew the results. To conclude that much more empirical research, with more sophisticated models, is necessary before we can fully understand the role of population dynamics (density, growth, distribution and composition) on deforestation. Javas population quadrupled in the last 100years. However, environmental damage was due to economic reasons not population growth. Failure to improve agricultural productivity and to create non-agriculutral employment has intensified population pressures. Panayotou (1996).